Impact of COVID-19 on the veteran population: evidence from the Trends in Scottish Veterans Health study.

INTRODUCTION: There have been few epidemiological studies on the impact of the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic on the veteran population, other than on specific aspects such as mental health, and none in the UK. We used data from the Trends in Scottish Veterans Health cohort to explore the risk of hospitalisation and death associated with COVID-19 in veterans resident in Scotland in comparison with matched non-veterans. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of 71 000 veterans and a comparison group of 230 000 non-veterans matched for age, sex and geography, using Cox proportional hazard analysis to explore the risk of hospitalisation with COVID-19 and COVID-19-associated death overall and by birth cohort, sex and length of military service. RESULTS: Between 1 January 2020 and 31 December 2021, 564 (0.79%) veterans had been hospitalised with COVID-19 compared with 1728 (0.75%) non-veterans. The Cox model showed no significant difference overall, HR 0.99, 95% CIs 0.90 to 1.11, p=0.800. Subgroup analysis showed increased risk in older, short-serving (<20 weeks) Early Service Leavers (ESL). There was no overall difference in COVID-19-associated deaths, HR 0.99, 95% CI 0.79 to 1.23, p=0.993, but subgroup analysis showed a non-significant reduced risk of death in veterans aged 61-70 years, and a 38% higher risk in veterans aged over 70 years which almost reached statistical significance, p=0.054. This was only partially explained by socioeconomic factors and common comorbidities, although we had no data on domestic circumstances or care home residence. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, military service was not a risk factor for either hospitalisation or death associated with COVID-19. Older ESLs were at increased risk compared with non-veterans, but military service is unlikely to have been causal. The risk of death was increased in the oldest veterans and further studies are needed to explain this once census data become available for linkage.

Increased risk of lower limb osteoarthritis among former professional soccer (football) players.

BACKGROUND: Soccer is a high-speed contact sport with risk of injury. Despite long-standing concern, evidence to date remains inconsistent as to the association between playing professional-level soccer and lifelong musculoskeletal consequences. AIMS: The objectives were to assess risk of osteoarthritis in former professional soccer players compared to matched general population controls, and subsequently assess associated musculoskeletal disorders which may contribute to, or result from, osteoarthritis-specifically meniscal injury and joint replacement. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study using national electronic health records (EHRs) on a cohort of 7676 former professional soccer players aged 40 or over at recruitment, matched on year of birth, sex (all male) and socio-economic status with 23 028 general population controls. Outcomes of interest were obtained by utilizing individual-level record linkage to EHRs from general hospital inpatient and day-case admissions. RESULTS: Compared to controls, former soccer players showed a greater risk of hospital admission for osteoarthritis (hazard ratio [HR] 3.01; 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.80-3.25; P < 0.001). This increased risk appeared age dependant, normalizing over age 80 years and reflective of increased risk of lower limb osteoarthritis. Further, risk of hospital admissions for meniscal injury (HR 2.73; 95% CI 2.42-3.08; P < 0.001) and joint replacement (HR 2.82; 95% CI 2.23-3.57; P < 0.001) were greater among former soccer players. CONCLUSIONS: We report an increased risk of lower limb osteoarthritis in former soccer players when compared with matched population controls. The results of this research add data in support of lower limb osteoarthritis among former soccer players representing a potential industrial injury.

Dementia in Scottish military veterans: early evidence from a retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have examined whether UK military veterans are at an increased risk of dementia. We explored the risk of dementia in Scottish military veterans aged up to 73 years in comparison with people who have never served. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of 78 000 veterans and 253 000 people with no record of service, matched for age, sex and area of residence, with up to 37 years follow-up, using Cox proportional hazard analysis to compare risk of dementia in veterans and non-veterans, overall and by subgroup. RESULTS: Dementia was recorded in 0.2% of both veterans and non-veterans overall, Cox proportional hazard ratio 0.98, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.82-1.19, p = 0.879 (landmark age: 50 years), with no difference for men but increased risk in veteran women and Early Service Leavers. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was associated with a higher risk of dementia in both veterans and non-veterans, although possibly to a lesser degree in veterans. A history of mood disorder was strongly associated with developing dementia, greater in veterans than in non-veterans, odds ratio 1.54, 95% CI 1.01-2.35, p = 0.045. CONCLUSIONS: There was no evidence to suggest that military service increased the risk of dementia, although this may change as the cohort ages. The well-documented association with PTSD shows no evidence of being stronger in veterans; by contrast, the association of mood disorder with dementia is much stronger in veterans. Healthcare providers should carefully assess the cognitive status of older veterans presenting with depressive illness in order to identify early dementia and ensure optimum management.

Hip and knee replacement as a proxy measure for lower limb osteoarthritis in Scottish military veterans.

INTRODUCTION: Physical activity is an important component of military training. Although injuries and musculoskeletal disorders are the most common cause of medical retirement from the Armed Forces, the long-term risk of lower limb osteoarthritis in veterans is unknown. We used data on hip and knee replacement in Scottish military veterans as a proxy measure. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of 78 000 veterans born between 1945 and 1995 and a comparison group of 253 000 non-veterans, matched for age, sex and area of residence, followed up for up to 37 years, using survival analysis to examine the risk of hip and knee replacement. RESULTS: Veterans were significantly less likely to undergo hip replacement than non-veterans, Cox proportional HR 0.87, 95% CI 0.80 to 0.95, p<0.001. There was no significant difference between veterans and non-veterans in respect of knee replacement, HR 1.02, 95% CI 0.94 to 1.11, p=0.643, and there was no difference in the ages at which veterans and non-veterans underwent joint replacement. People who had served for longest in the military had similar risk to those with the shortest service. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the likelihood of undergoing joint replacement surgery in later life, we found no evidence of a positive association between military service and an increased risk of lower limb osteoarthritis.

Age at entry to UK military service and long-term mental health.

INTRODUCTION: It has been suggested that 'junior entry' to the UK Armed Forces (prior to age 17.5 years) increases the risk of adverse mental health outcomes. We used data from a large cohort of veterans to examine long-term mental health outcomes in veterans by age at entry to the UK Armed Forces, compared with non-veterans. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of 78 157 veterans in Scotland, born between 1945 and 1995 and and 252 637 matched non-veterans, with up to 37 years follow-up, using Cox proportional hazard models to examine the association between veteran status and cumulative risk of major mental health disorder, stratified by birth cohort, and age at recruitment for the veterans. RESULTS: The risk of mental health disorder in the veterans increased with age at entry, ranging from HR 1.12, 95% CI 1.06 to 1.18, p<0.001 for junior entrants to HR 1.37, 95% CI 1.27 to 1.80, p<0.001 for those aged 20-25 years at entry. The pattern was most marked for veterans born before 1960, and age at recruitment had little impact in recent birth cohorts. Post-traumatic stress disorder accounted for most of the observed differences. Younger age at recruitment was associated with longer service, median 7.4 years (IQR 3.0-14.7) compared with 5.6 years (IQR 2.1-11.7) for entrants aged 20-25 years. CONCLUSION: We found no evidence that early recruitment is associated with adverse impact on long-term mental health. Paradoxically, it was veterans who entered service at age 20-25 years who demonstrated increased risk, although this attenuated in more recent birth cohorts.

Cohort profile: Scotland's record-linkage e-cohorts of people with intellectual disabilities, and autistic people (SCIDA).

PURPOSE: To investigate health, mortality and healthcare inequalities experienced by people with intellectual disabilities, and autistic people, and their determinants; an important step towards identifying and implementing solutions to reduce inequalities. This paper describes the cohorts, record-linkages and variables that will be used. PARTICIPANTS: Scotland's Census, 2011 was used to identify Scotland's citizens with intellectual disabilities, and autistic citizens, and representative general population samples with neither. Using Scotland's community health index, the Census data (demography, household, employment, long-term conditions) were linked with routinely collected health, death and healthcare data: Scotland's register of deaths, Scottish morbidity data 06 (SMR06: cancer incidence, mortality, treatments), Prescribing Information System (identifying asthma/chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; angina/congestive heart failure/hypertension; peptic ulcer/reflux; constipation; diabetes; thyroid disorder; depression; bipolar disorders; anxiety/sleep; psychosis; attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; epilepsy; glaucoma), SMR01 (general/acute hospital admissions and causes, ambulatory care sensitive admissions), SMR04 (mental health admissions and causes), Scottish Care Information-Diabetes Collaboration (diabetic care quality, diabetic outcomes), national bowel screening programme and cervical screening. FINDINGS TO DATE: Of the whole population, 0.5% had intellectual disabilities, and 0.6% were autistic. Linkage was successful for >92%. The resultant e-cohorts include: (1) 22 538 people with intellectual disabilities (12 837 men and 9701 women), 4509 of whom are children <16 years, (2) 27 741 autistic people (21 390 men and 6351 women), 15 387 of whom are children <16 years and (3) representative general population samples with neither condition. Very good general health was reported for only 3389 (15.0%) people with intellectual disabilities, 10 510 (38.0%) autistic people, compared with 52.4% general population. Mental health conditions were reported for 4755 (21.1%) people with intellectual disabilities, 3998 (14.4%) autistic people, compared with 4.2% general population. FUTURE PLANS: Analyses will determine the extent of premature mortality, causes of death, and avoidable deaths, profile of health conditions and cancers, healthcare quality and screening and determinants of mortality and healthcare.

The influence of demographics and comorbidity on persistence with anti-seizure medication.

PURPOSE: To examine the rate of persistence with anti-seizure medications (ASMs) in a cohort of patients with epilepsy, and to investigate the impact of a range of clinical and demographic factors on persistence METHODS: Patients receiving ASMs for epilepsy were identified from linked, routinely collected data within the NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde health board area between January 2011 and August 2019. Persistence with individual ASMs at 365-days after initiation was assessed using a 90-day allowable gap between individual prescriptions. Univariate logistic regression was used to estimate the association between 1-year persistence with ASM and demographic characteristics, comorbidities, and medication characteristics. RESULTS: In total, 6,449 patients with epilepsy were identified - 1,631 were new users of ASMs at baseline and 4,818 had been prescribed at least one ASM prior to baseline. Persistence with individual ASMs ranged 11.8% to 78.6%. Persistence was significantly lower in younger patients and patients who had previously been non-persistent to ASMs. Persistence was higher amongst those with cardiac comorbidities, previous stroke, or higher overall comorbidity, as well as those prescribed newer ASMs. CONCLUSION: Persistence varied widely. Demographic factors, previous non-persistence and overall number of comorbidities were more important determinants of persistence to anti-seizure medications than specific individual comorbidities. Interventions to improve persistence should be targeted at younger patients from more deprived backgrounds and those who have previously been non-persistent with ASMs.

Type 2 diabetes in Scottish military veterans: a retrospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: Type 2 diabetes is an important public health problem but the risk in UK military veterans is unknown. We used data from the Trends in Scottish Veterans' Health study to investigate the risk in comparison with people with no record of service. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study of a large national sample in Scotland, with up to 37 years follow-up. SETTING: Pseudoanonymised extract of computerised Scottish National Health Service records, including a disease register and national vital records. PARTICIPANTS: 78 000 veterans and 253 000 people with no record of service matched for age, sex and area of residence. OUTCOME MEASURES: Cox proportional HRs for first record of type 2 diabetes in veterans compared with non-veterans, overall and by sex and birth cohort. Long-term trend, comorbidity with specific mental health outcomes and risk of limb loss. RESULTS: Overall, 7.2% of veterans were diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, and were at slightly increased risk compared with non-veterans, Cox proportional HR 1.08, 95%CIs 1.04 to 1.11, p<0.001. The increased risk was confined to men, and to veterans born prior to 1960. There has been no change in HR over the last 25 years. Among veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 12.1% had been diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, compared with 9.4% of non-veterans with PTSD. The difference was statistically significant, OR 1.29, 95% CI 1.04 to 1.59, p=0.021. Risk of limb loss was increased among the oldest veterans. CONCLUSIONS: Older veterans in Scotland have an increased risk of type 2 diabetes in comparison with non-veterans, but there is no difference in respect of younger veterans, and the pattern of risk shows no evidence that it is changing. There is a positive association between type 2 diabetes and PTSD, especially in the presence of comorbid mood disorder, an important finding which should be noted by care providers.

Postservice lower limb amputation in Scottish military veterans.

INTRODUCTION: Recent attention has focused on veterans who have lost limbs in conflict, but the number of UK veterans who lose limbs to disease is unknown. We used data from the Trends in Scottish Veterans' Health study to explore postservice lower limb amputation. METHODS: We carried out a retrospective cohort study of 78 000 veterans and 253 000 non-veterans born between 1945 and 1995, matched for age, sex and area of residence. We used survival analysis to examine the risk of amputation in veterans compared with non-veterans, and explored associations with antecedent disease. RESULTS: We found no difference between veterans and non-veterans in the risk of lower limb amputation, which was recorded in 145 (0.19%) veterans and 464 (0.18%) non-veterans (Cox proportional hazard ratio (HR) 1.00, 95% CIs 0.82 to 1.20, p=0.961). Peripheral arterial disease was recorded in two-thirds of both veteran and non-veteran amputees, and type 2 diabetes in 41% of veterans and 33% of non-veterans, with a dual diagnosis in 32% of veterans and 26% of non-veterans. Trauma was an infrequent cause of amputation. CONCLUSIONS: Although in later life veterans are no more likely to lose a limb to disease than non-veterans, the number so affected greatly outweighs those who have lost limbs in conflict. The high public profile of conflict-related limb loss risks eclipsing the needs of veterans with disease-related loss. Support for ageing veterans who have lost limbs due to disease will require planning with the same care as that afforded to the victims of conflict if inequalities are to be avoided.

Rates and causes of mortality among children and young people with and without intellectual disabilities in Scotland: a record linkage cohort study of 796 190 school children.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate mortality rates and causes in children and young people with intellectual disabilities. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort; individual record linkage between Scotland's annual pupil census and National Records of Scotland death register. SETTING: General community. PARTICIPANTS: Pupils receiving local authority-funded schooling in Scotland, 2008 to 2013, with an Additional Support Need due to intellectual disabilities, compared with other pupils. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Deaths up to 2015: age of death, age-standardised mortality ratios (age-SMRs); causes of death including cause-specific age-SMRs; avoidable deaths as defined by the UK Office of National Statistics. RESULTS: 18 278/947 922 (1.9%) pupils had intellectual disabilities. 106 died over 67 342 person-years (crude mortality rate=157/100 000 person-years), compared with 458 controls over 3 672 224 person-years (crude mortality rate=12/100 000 person-years). Age-SMR was 11.6 (95% CI 9.6 to 14.0); 16.6 (95% CI 12.2 to 22.6) for female pupils and 9.8 (95% CI 7.7 to 12.5) for male pupils. Most common main underlying causes were diseases of the nervous system, followed by congenital anomalies; most common all-contributing causes were diseases of the nervous system, followed by respiratory system; most common specific contributing causes were cerebral palsy, pneumonia, respiratory failure and epilepsy. For all contributing causes, SMR was 98.8 (95% CI 69.9 to 139.7) for congenital anomalies, 76.5 (95% CI 58.9 to 99.4) for nervous system, 63.7 (95% CI 37.0 to 109.7) for digestive system, 55.3 (95% CI 42.5 to 72.1) for respiratory system, 32.1 (95% CI 17.8 to 57.9) for endocrine and 14.8 (95% CI 8.9 to 24.5) for circulatory system. External causes accounted for 46% of control deaths, but the SMR for external-related deaths was still higher (3.6 (95% CI 2.2 to 5.8)) for pupils with intellectual disabilities. Deaths amenable to good care were common. CONCLUSION: Pupils with intellectual disabilities were much more likely to die than their peers, and had a different pattern of causes, including amenable deaths across a wide range of disease categories. Improvements are needed to reduce amenable deaths, for example, epilepsy-related and dysphagia, and to support families of children with life-limiting conditions.

Associations between diet and handgrip strength: a cross-sectional study from UK Biobank.

The aim of the current study was to investigate the association between diet and handgrip strength. The current study included 68,002 participants (age 63.8 ± 2.7 years, 50.3% women, 49.7% men) from UK Biobank. Diet and nutritional data (carotene, retinol, potassium, vitamin C, foliate, vitamin B12, vitamin B6, iron, vitamin E, calcium, magnesium, carbohydrates, protein, polyunsaturated fat, fat, starch and saturated fat) were collected and handgrip strength measured. Associations were compared, stratified by sex, using regression analyses, after adjustment for age, sex, month of assessment, ethnicity, deprivation index, height, comorbidities and total energy intake. The current data revealed negative associations between carbohydrate intake and handgrip strength as well as positive associations between oily fish, retinol and magnesium intake and grip strength in both sexes. In women, positive associations were observed between intake of red meat, fruit and vegetables, vitamin E, iron, vitamin B12, folate and vitamin C and hand grip strength. In men only negative associations were seen between bread and processed meat with grip strength. We have shown associations of several nutrients and food items with muscle strength and appropriately designed trials are needed to investigate whether these nutrients/food items may be beneficial in the maintenance of muscle during ageing.

Birth incidence, deaths and hospitalisations of children and young people with Down syndrome, 1990-2015: birth cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate current Down syndrome live birth and death rates, and childhood hospitalisations, compared with peers. SETTING: General community. PARTICIPANTS: All live births with Down syndrome, 1990-2015, identified via Scottish regional cytogenetic laboratories, each age-sex-neighbourhood deprivation matched with five non-Down syndrome controls. Record linkage to Scotland's hospital admissions and death data. PRIMARY OUTCOME: HRs comparing risk of first hospitalisation (any and emergency), readmission for children with Down syndrome and matched controls were calculated using stratified Cox proportional hazards (PH) model, and length of hospital stay was calculated using a conditional log-linear regression model. RESULTS: 689/1479 (46.6%) female and 769/1479 (51.9%) male children/young people with Down syndrome were identified (1.0/1000 births, with no reduction over time); 1235 were matched. 92/1235 (7.4%) died during the period, 18.5 times more than controls. More of the Down syndrome group had at least one admission (incidence rate ratio(IRR) 72.89 (68.72-77.32) vs 40.51 (39.15-41.92); adjusted HR=1.84 (1.68, 2.01)) and readmissions (IRR 54.85 (51.46-58.46) vs 15.06 (14.36-15.80); adjusted HR=2.56 (2.08, 3.14)). More of their admissions were emergencies (IRR 56.78 (53.13-60.72) vs 28.88 (27.73-30.07); first emergency admission adjusted HR=2.87 (2.61, 3.15)). Children with Down syndrome had 28% longer first admission after birth. Admission rate increased from 1990-2003 to 2004-2014 for the Down syndrome group (from 90.7% to 92.2%) and decreased for controls (from 63.3% to 44.8%). CONCLUSIONS: We provide contemporaneous statistics on the live birth rate of babies with Down syndrome, and their childhood death rate. They require more hospital admissions, readmissions emergency admissions and longer lengths of stays than their peers, which has received scant research attention in the past. This demonstrates the importance of statutory planning as well as informal support to families to avoid added problems in child development and family bonding over and above that brought by the intellectual disabilities associated with Down syndrome.

UK stillbirth trends in over 11 million births provide no evidence to support effectiveness of Growth Assessment Protocol program.

OBJECTIVE: Use of the Growth Assessment Protocol (GAP) has increased internationally under the assumption that it reduces the stillbirth rate. The evidence for this is limited and based largely on an ecological time-trend study. Discordance in the uptake of the GAP program between Scotland and England/Wales enabled us to assess the assertion that implementation of GAP leads to a reduced stillbirth rate. METHODS: We analyzed data from the National Records for Scotland and the Office for National Statistics on the number of singleton maternities and stillbirths in Scotland and in England and Wales, respectively, from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2015. National uptake of the GAP program over time in each of the regions was recorded. Stillbirth rate per 1000 maternities was calculated, according to year of delivery, and compared between Scotland and England/Wales. RESULTS: During the study period, there were 870 632 singleton maternities in Scotland, of which 4243 were stillbirths, and there were 10 469 120 singleton maternities in England and Wales, of which 51 562 were stillbirths. There was a marked difference in uptake of the GAP program between the two regions, with substantially fewer maternity units in Scotland implementing the program. Stillbirth rates were static up to 2010, with a decline thereafter in both regions, to 3.75 (95% CI, 3.25-4.30) per 1000 maternities in Scotland and 4.30 (95% CI, 4.15-4.46) per 1000 maternities in England and Wales in 2015. From 2010 onwards, the decline in Scotland was faster, equating to 48 (95% CI, 47.9-48.1) fewer stillbirths per 100 000 maternities in Scotland than in England and Wales from 2010 to 2015 compared with 2000 to 2009. CONCLUSIONS: We observed a decline in stillbirth rate in England and Wales, which coincided with implementation of the GAP program. However, a concurrent decline in stillbirth rate was observed in Scotland in the absence of increased implementation of GAP. The secular rates of change in stillbirth rate in England and Wales cannot be used to infer efficacy of the GAP program. © 2020 The Authors. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

In utero exposure to antidepressant medication and neonatal and child outcomes: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to systematically review published studies, reporting outcomes to offspring following in utero exposure to antidepressant medications, which used an untreated depressed comparison group. METHODS: OVID, Scopus, EBSCO Collections, the Cochrane Library and Web of Science databases were searched for relevant publications published between January 1950 and May 2018 and a total of 188 potentially eligible studies were identified. RESULTS: Following review, 16 primary studies were eligible for inclusion. Antidepressant exposure was associated with an increased risk of lower gestational age, preterm birth, but not low birthweight or being small for gestational age compared to untreated depression. There is some evidence that congenital defects are associated with antidepressant use, particularly between cardiac defects and paroxetine use. There is conflicting evidence regarding neurodevelopment in offspring, with some reports of increased incidence of autistic spectrum disorders and depression, but also reports of no problems when measuring emotional symptoms, peer problems, conduct problems and hyperactivity-inattention scores. CONCLUSION: When compared with an untreated depressed group, antidepressant exposure was associated with adverse outcomes at birth, while there is insufficient data to determine whether the association between antidepressants and congenital defects or developmental disorders is a true association. However, although we compared treated vs. untreated depression there still may be residual confounding as an untreated depressed group is likely to have less severe depression.

Impact of major depression on cardiovascular outcomes for individuals with hypertension: prospective survival analysis in UK Biobank.

OBJECTIVES: To assess whether a history of major depressive disorder (MDD) in middle-aged individuals with hypertension influences first-onset cardiovascular disease outcomes. DESIGN: Prospective cohort survival analysis using Cox proportional hazards regression with a median follow-up of 63 months (702 902 person-years). Four mutually exclusive groups were compared: hypertension only (n=56 035), MDD only (n=15 098), comorbid hypertension plus MDD (n=12 929) and an unaffected (no hypertension, no MDD) comparison group (n=50 798). SETTING: UK Biobank. PARTICIPANTS: UK Biobank participants without cardiovascular disease aged 39-70 who completed psychiatric questions relating International Classification of Diseases-10 Revision (ICD-10) diagnostic criteria on a touchscreen questionnaire at baseline interview in 2006-2010 (n=134 860). PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: First-onset adverse cardiovascular outcomes leading to hospital admission or death (ICD-10 codes I20-I259, I60-69 and G45-G46), adjusted in a stepwise manner for sociodemographic, health and lifestyle features. Secondary analyses were performed looking specifically at stroke outcomes (ICD-10 codes I60-69 and G45-G46) and in gender-separated models. RESULTS: Relative to controls, adjusted HRs for adverse cardiovascular outcomes were increased for the hypertension only group (HR 1.36, 95% CI 1.22 to 1.52) and were higher still for the comorbid hypertension plus MDD group (HR 1.66, 95% CI 1.45 to 1.9). HRs for the comorbid hypertension plus MDD group were significantly raised compared with hypertension alone (HR 1.22, 95% CI 1.1 to 1.35). Interaction measured using relative excess risk due to interaction (RERI) and likelihood ratios (LRs) were identified at baseline (RERI 0.563, 95% CI 0.189 to 0.938; LR p=0.0116) but not maintained during the follow-up. LIMITATIONS: Possible selection bias in UK Biobank and inability to assess for levels of medication adherence. CONCLUSIONS: Comorbid hypertension and MDD conferred greater hazard than hypertension alone for adverse cardiovascular outcomes, although evidence of interaction between hypertension and MDD was inconsistent over time. Future cardiovascular risk prediction tools may benefit from the inclusion of questions about prior history of depressive disorders.

Healthy workers or less healthy leavers? Mortality in military veterans.

BACKGROUND: The 'healthy worker effect' predicts that longer employment is positively associated with reduced mortality, but few studies have examined mortality in military veterans irrespective of exposure to conflict. AIMS: To examine mortality in a large national cohort of Scottish veterans by length of service. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study comparing survival in up to 30-year follow-up among 57 000 veterans and 173 000 people with no record of service, matched for age, sex and area of residence, who were born between 1945 and 1985. We compared antecedent diagnoses in the two groups to provide information on probable risk factors. RESULTS: By the end of follow-up, 3520 (6%) veterans had died, compared with 10 947 (6%) non-veterans. Cox proportional hazard analysis confirmed no significant difference overall unadjusted or after adjusting for deprivation. On subgroup analysis, those who left prematurely (early service leavers) were at significantly increased risk of death (hazard ratio (HR) 1.16, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.09-1.24, P < 0.001), although the increase became non-significant after adjusting for socioeconomic status (HR 1.05, 95% CI 0.99-1.12). Longer-serving veterans were at significantly lower risk of death than non-veterans; the risk decreased both with length of service and in more recent birth cohorts. Smoking-related disease was the greatest contributor to increased mortality in early leavers. CONCLUSIONS: Among longer-serving veterans, there was evidence of a HWE partly attributable to selective attrition of early service leavers, but birth cohort analysis suggests improvements over time which may also reflect a causal effect of improved in-service health promotion.

The lifetime prevalence of hospitalised head injury in Scottish prisons: A population study.

BACKGROUND: There is mounting evidence that associates brain injury and offending behaviour, and there is a need to understand the epidemiology of head injury in prisoners in order to plan interventions to reduce associated disability and risk of reoffending. This is the first study to determine the lifetime prevalence of hospitalised head injury (HHI) in a national population of current prison inmates. In addition characteristics of prisoners with HHI and were compared to prisoners without HHI to discover whether those with HI differed demographically. METHODS: Whole life hospital records of everyone aged 35 years or younger and resident in a prison in Scotland on a census date in 2015 were electronically linked via their unique NHS identifier and checked for ICD-9 and 10 codes for head injury. Using a case-control design, these data were compared with a sample from the general population matched 3:1 for age, gender and area-based social deprivation. Comparison of demographic variables was made between prisoners with and without HHI. RESULTS: HHI was found in 24.7% (1,080/4,374) of prisoners and was significantly more prevalent than found in the matched general population sample (18.2%; 2394/13122; OR 2.10; 95%CI 1.87, 2.16). The prevalence of HHI in prisoners and controls was similar with the exception of a higher risk of HHI in prisoners in lower deprivation quintiles. Having three or more HHI was more common in prisoners (OR 3.04; 95%CI 2.33, 3.97) as were HHI with ICD codes for intracranial injuries (OR 1.81; 95% CI 1.54, 2.11), suggesting that more severe HHI is more prevalent in prisoners than the general population. The distributions within demographic variables and the characteristics of HHI admissions in prisoners with and without a history of HHI were similar. CONCLUSION: Prisoners in Scotland aged 35 years or younger have a higher lifetime prevalence of HHI than the general population and are more likely to have had repeated HI or intracranial injuries. Further work is required to elucidate the correspondence between self-report of HI and hospitalised records and to ascertain persisting effects of HI in prisoners and the need for services to reduce associated disability and risk of reoffending.

Peripheral arterial disease in Scottish military veterans: a retrospective cohort study of 57 000 veterans and 173 000 matched non-veterans.

BACKGROUND: While traumatic limb loss in military personnel is widely known, the threat posed by peripheral arterial disease (PAD) in those who have served is less well recognized. The aim of our study was to examine the risk of PAD in a Scotland-wide cohort of veterans who served between 1960 and 2012. METHODS: Retrospective 30-year cohort study of 56 205 veterans born 1945-85, and 172 741 non-veterans, matched for age, sex and area of residence, using Cox proportional hazard models to examine the association between veteran status, birth cohort, length of service and risk of PAD leading to hospitalization or death. RESULTS: Overall, veterans were at increased risk of PAD compared with non-veterans, unadjusted hazard ratio (HR) = 1.46, 95% confidence intervals (CI): 1.33-1.60, P < 0.001. The highest risk was in veterans born between 1950 and 1954, HR = 1.76, 95% CI: 1.50-2.07, P < 0.001, and in those with the shortest service (early service leavers), HR = 1.84, 95% CI: 1.49-2.27, P < 0.001. CONCLUSIONS: The findings provide evidence for a hidden burden of life- and limb-threatening PAD in older veterans and are consistent with the higher rates of military smoking which have been reported previously. The study emphasizes the need for vascular preventive measures in this group.

Adherence to cardiovascular medication: a review of systematic reviews.

BACKGROUND: Use of cardiovascular medication has increased over time, especially for primary and secondary prevention, with polypharmacy common. METHODS: Review of published systematic reviews of the factors and outcomes associated with adherence to cardiovascular medication using MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL and PsycINFO databases. Quality was assessed using the AMSTAR tool. RESULTS: Of 789 systematic reviews identified, 45 met the inclusion criteria and passed the quality assessment; 34 focused on factors associated with adherence, and 11 on outcomes. High heterogeneity, both between and within reviews, precluded meta-analysis and so a pooled estimate of adherence levels could not be derived. Adherence was associated with disease factors, therapy factors, healthcare factors, patient factors and social factors, though with some inconsistencies. In total, 91% of reviews addressing outcomes reported that low adherence was associated with poorer clinical and economic endpoints. CONCLUSIONS: Factors from across five key domains relate to non-adherence to cardiovascular medications, and may contribute to poorer clinical outcomes. Interventions to improve adherence should be developed to address modifiable factors and targeted at those at highest risk of non-adherence. Adherence research is highly heterogeneous to-date and efforts to standardize this should be implemented to improve comparability.

The association between driving time and unhealthy lifestyles: a cross-sectional, general population study of 386 493 UK Biobank participants.

BACKGROUND: Driving is a common type of sedentary behaviour; an independent risk factor for poor health. The study explores whether driving is also associated with other unhealthy lifestyle factors. METHODS: In a cross-sectional study of UK Biobank participants, driving time was treated as an ordinal variable and other lifestyle factors dichotomized into low/high risk based on guidelines. The associations were explored using chi-square tests for trend and binary logistic regression. RESULTS: Of the 386 493 participants who drove, 153 717 (39.8%) drove <1 h/day; 140 140 (36.3%) 1 h/day; 60 973 (15.8%) 2 h/day; and 31 663 (8.2%) ≥3 h/day. Following adjustment for potential confounders, driving ≥3 h/day was associated with being overweight/obese (OR = 1.74, 95% CI: 1.64-1.85), smoking (OR = 1.48, 95% CI: 1.37-1.63), insufficient sleep (1.70, 95% CI: 1.61-1.80), low fruit/vegetable intake (OR = 1.26, 95% CI: 1.18-1.35) and low physical activity (OR = 1.05, 95% CI: 1.00-1.11), with dose relationships for the first three, but was not associated with higher alcohol consumption (OR = 0.94, 95% CI: 0.87-1.02). CONCLUSIONS: Sedentary behaviour, such as driving, is known to have an independent association with adverse health outcomes. It may have additional impact mediated through its effect on other aspects of lifestyle. People with long driving times are at higher risk and might benefit from targeted interventions.